Electronics World

Bio chip

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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">Introduction
to a Bio chip:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">A </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px;">bio chip</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> is a collection of miniaturized test sites (</span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px;">micro-arrays</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">) arranged on a
solid substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in
order to achieve higher throughput and speed. Typically, a </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px;">bio chip's</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> surface
area is no larger than a fingernail. Like a computer chip that can perform
millions of mathematical operations in one second, a </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px;">bio chip</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> can perform
thousands of biological reactions, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">A
genetic </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px;">bio chip</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> is designed to "freeze" into place the structures of
many short strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the basic chemical
instruction that determines the characteristics of an organism. Effectively, it
is used as a kind of "test tube" for real chemical samples. A
specially designed microscope can determine where the sample hybridized with
DNA strands in the biochip. Biochips helped to dramatically accelerate the
identification of the estimated 80,000 genes in human DNA, an ongoing
world-wide research collaboration known as the Human Genome Project. The
microchip is described as a sort of "word search" function that can
quickly sequence DNA.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">In
addition to genetic applications, the biochip is being used in toxicological,
protein, and biochemical research. Biochips can also be used to rapidly detect
chemical agents used in biological warfare so that defensive measures can be
taken.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In recent
years, a lot of progress has been made in the area of implantable biochip
technology. The above quote from Mr. Small suggests that we are crossing the
line between animal and human applications, and Hughes Identification Devices
has been at the forefront of this development. Effective August 29,1993, the
Safe Medical Devices Registration Act requires all prosthetic medical implants
in humans to be identified with a rice-size biochip-the same kind that is being
implanted in animals---which contains vital information. Hughes Identification
Devices is the main supplier of these medical biochips. A recent article in
Popular Science magazine titled, Future Watch: Body Binary (October, 1994)
predicts, "Within the next ten years, we'll have miniature computers
inside us to monitor and perhaps even control our blood pressure, heart rate,
and cholesterol. Within twenty years, such computers will correct visual and
hearing signals, making glasses and hearing aids obsolete."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As
technology advances, the various uses for microchips and biochips seem to be
limited only by our imagination---a truly frightening thought given the
humanistic, socialistic, Orwellian-type society in which we live. Today, the
most popular application of the implantable biochip transponder is for the
purpose of animal, or pet, identification. But the day is not far off when
Big-Brother's New-World-Order global government will "tag" humans
with the same "animal" biochips.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">When
biologists and computer scientists work to combine strands of biological
material with computer chips, they create</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">biochips. A biochip is structurally similar to a
traditional computer chip, except that it replaces the usual transistors with
organic molecules, typically small strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA
is the cellular material that contains all of the programming that controls the
growth, development, and behavior of living cells, so the choice of DNA for the
organic molecules is an obvious one. Although the exact construction of a
biochip is anything but simple, the overall idea of the design is very simple.
Essentially, a biochip looks and functions like a tiny ice cube tray.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">The
current, in use, biochip implant system is actually a fairly simple device.
Today’s, biochip implant is basically a small (micro) computer chip, inserted
under the skin, for identification purposes. The biochip implant system
consists of two components; a transponder and a reader or scanner. The
transponder is the actual biochip implant. The biochip system is radio
frequency identification (RFID) system, using low-frequency radio signals to
communicate between the biochip and reader. The reading range or activation
range, between reader and biochip is small, normally between 2 and 12 inches.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">To Know more Comment us<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Bio chip

Introduction to a Bio chip: A bio chip is a collection of miniaturized test sites ( micro-arrays ) arranged on a solid substrate tha...

1:45 AM

Artificial Neural Network

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<b>Introduction:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Ever since eternity, one thing that has made human beings stand apart from the rest of the animal kingdom is, its brain .The most intelligent device on earth, the “Human brain” is the driving force that has given us the ever-progressive species diving into technology and development as each day progresses.<br />
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Due to his inquisitive nature, man tried to make machines that could do intelligent job processing, and take decisions according to instructions fed to it. What resulted was the machine that revolutionized the whole world, the “Computer” (more technically speaking the Von Neumann Computer). Even though it could perform millions of calculations every second, display incredible graphics and 3-dimentional animations, play audio and video but it made the same mistake every time.<br />
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Practice could not make it perfect. So the quest for making more intelligent device continued. These researches lead to birth of more powerful processors with high-tech equipments attached to it, super computers with capabilities to handle more than one task at a time and finally networks with resources sharing facilities. But still the problem of designing machines with intelligent self-learning, loomed large in front of mankind. Then the idea of initiating human brain stuck the designers who started their researches one of the technologies that will change the way computer work Artificial Neural Networks.<br />
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<b>Definition:</b><br />
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Neural Network is the specified branch of the Artificial Intelligence.<br />
In general, Neural Networks are simply mathematical techniques designed to accomplish a variety of tasks. Neural Networks uses a set of processing elements (or nodes) loosely analogues to neurons in the brain (hence the same, neural networks). These nodes are interconnected in a network that can then identify patterns in data as it is exposed to the data. In a sense, the network learns from the experience just as people do. Neural networks can be configured in various arrangements to perform a range of tasks including pattern recognition, data mining, classification, and process modeling.<br />
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<b>Basics of Artificial Neural Models:</b><br />
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<span style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">The human brain is made up of computing
elements, called neurons, coupled with sensory receptors (affecters) and
effectors. The average human brain, roughly three pounds in weight and 90 cubic
inches in volume, is estimated to contain about 100 billion cells of various
types. A neuron is a special cell that conducts and electrical signal, and
there are about 10 billion neurons in the human brain. The remaining 90 billion
cells are called glial or glue cells, and these serve as support cells for the
neurons. Each neuron is about one-hundredth size of the period at the end of
this sentence. Neurons interact through contacts called synapses. Each synapse
spans a gap about a millionth of an inch wide. On the average each neuron
receives signals via thousands of synapses.</span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">The motivation for artificial neural network
(ANN) researches is the belief that a human’s capabilities, particularly in
real-time visual perception, speech understanding, and sensory information processing
and in adaptively as well as intelligent decision making in general, come from
the organizational and computational principles exhibited in the highly complex
neural network of the human brain. Expectations of faster and better solution
provide us with the challenge to build machines using the same computational
and organizational principles, simplified and abstracted from neurobiological
of the brain.</span><br />
<span style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="line-height: 24px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b>Artificial Neural Network:</b></span><br />
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Artificial neural network (ANNs), also
called parallel distributed processing systems (PDPs) and connectionist
systems, are intended for modeling the organization principles of the central
neurons system, with the hope that the biologically inspired computing
capabilities of the ANN will allow the cognitive and logically inspired
computing capabilities of the ANN will allow the cognitive and sensory tasks to
be performed more easily and more satisfactory than with conventional serial
processors. Because of the limitation of serial computers, much effort has
devoted to the development of the parallel processing architecture; the
function of single processor is at a level comparable to that of a neuron. If
the interconnections between the simplest fine-grained processors are made
adaptive, a neural network results. </div>
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ANN structures, broadly classified as
recurrent (involving feedback) or non-recurrent (without feedback), have
numerous processing elements (also dubbed neurons, neurodes, units or cells)
and connections (forward and backward interlayer connections between neurons in
different layers, forward and backward interlayer connections or lateral
connections between neurons in the same layer, and self-connections between the
input and output layer of the same neuron. Neural networks may not have
differing structures or topology but are also distinguished from one another by
the way they learn, the manner in which computations are performed (rule-based,
fuzzy, even nonalorithmic), and the component characteristic of the neurons or
the input/output description of the synaptic dynamics). These networks are
required to perform significant processing tasks through collective local
interaction that produces global properties.</div>
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Since the components and connections and their packaging
under stringent spatial constraints make the system large-scale, the role of
graph theory, algorithm, and neuroscience is pervasive.     </div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">How
Neural Networks differ from Conventional Computer?<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Neural Networks perform computation in a
very different way than conventional computers, where a single central
processing unit sequential dictates every piece of the action. Neural Networks
are built from a large number of very simple processing elements that
individually deal with pieces of a big problem. A processing element (PE) simply
multiplies an output value (table lookup). The principles of neural computation
come from the massive processing tasks, and from the adaptive nature of the
parameters (weights) that interconnected the PEs.</span></div>
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Artificial Neural Network

Introduction: Ever since eternity, one thing that has made human beings stand apart from the rest of the animal kingdom is, its brain .Th...

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